Where
B=individual behavior, F=function of, P=the person, and S=the situation.
Norman R. F. Maier
Adapted Lewin’s model into
his classic causal sequence model:
Where
S=the situation, O=the person, B=the behavior, and A=the activity.
Victor Vroom
Theory states the
following: “felt needs cause behavior, and motivated behavior in a work
setting is increased if a person perceives a positive relationship
between effort and performance. Motivated behavior is further increased
if there is a positive relationship between good performance and
outcomes or rewards, particularly if the outcomes or rewards are valued”
(Hersey and Blanchard 33).
Abraham Maslow
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
addresses the need for satisfaction of basic needs before moving to more
advanced needs. Needs may change depending on their importance at the
time. For example, if one is hungry once that need is satisfied other
needs become more important. This relates to motive strength and its
importance.
Clayton Alderfer
Alderfer revamped Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs theory. The text states that “Alderfer suggests
there are three core needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth” (Hersey
and Blanchard 41). This theory is the ERG theory.
David McClelland
McClelland studies the need
that individuals have to achieve. McClelland’s work centers on
achievement-motivated persons. Motivation in these persons occurs by
achieving tasks and goals.
Elton Mayo
Mayo conducted the famous
Hawthorne Studies. These studies focused on how lighting in the work
environment influenced productivity.
Douglas McGregor
Theory X and Theory Y are
McGregor’s theories. Theory X managers assume that punishment is what
motivates employees. Theory Y managers are supporting and encouraging
to their subordinates.
Chris Argyris
Pattern A and Pattern B are
Argyris’ theories. Pattern A represents “interpersonal behavior, group
dynamics, and organizational norms” (Hersey and Blanchard 62). Pattern
B represents the same qualities as Theory Y. Argyris also developed the
Immaturity-Maturity Theory. This theory states that as we age our
personality traits change from immature to mature.
George C. Homans
Homans addresses informal
work groups. Homans described a social system consisting of three
elements. The elements are as follows: “Activities, Interactions, and
Sentiments” (Hersey and Blanchard 62).
Frederick Herzberg
Herzberg developed the
Motivation-Hygiene Theory. Herzberg believed that people have two
distinct categories of needs. Hygiene needs “describe people’s
environment and serve the primary function of preventing job
dissatisfaction . . . they are never completely satisfied” (Hersey and
Blanchard 67). Herzberg called them motivators because he felt that
these needs motivated people to perform at a higher level.
**All information in the above table is from the text entitled Management
of Organizational Behavior Leading Human Resources by P. Hersey and K.
Blanchard.
Anne M. Stills
(TNU 2005)
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
If you want to truly understand something, try to change it. - Kurt
Lewin
Lewin uses
his fundamental equation of human behavior: B = f (P < == > S).
He theorizes that an individual’s behavior is a function of the
person inside and the situation outside. His theory is the
basis for situational leadership. He believes that the
situation determines the appropriate leadership behavior.
Hersey,
Paul., Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Dale W. Barner (TNU 2005)
The first step in understanding employees' behavior is looking for what
motivates them to underachieve or overachieve. Kurt Lewin says that the
situation that the person finds him/herself in causes behavior and that behavior
is essentially goal oriented. Goals must be difficult enough to provide
challenge, while remaining attainable. If goals remain blocked too many times,
the employee may experience frustration, which can lead to aggression,
rationalization, regression, fixation, or resignation. A manager must be able to
recognize each of these symptoms as a sign of inappropriate motivational goals.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 2004)
Lewin developed the
“fundamental equation of human behavior:
B = f (P and S)
B= Behavior
P = Person
S= Situation
Lewin’s equation suggests that influences on behavior include both
the person and the situation and a person’s behavior can be
situational. Lewin further theorized that that people behave or act
based on personal motivation or goals. In order for a leader to be
effective, he must understand the follower’s goals and motivating
factors. An effective leader must be able to understand or predict
behavior that would result from a person’s
Wendi Hester (TNU 2005)
Kurt Lewin’s Equation Theory
Theories of behavior such as, Kurt Lewin’s behavioral equation
theory that individual’s are influenced by situations. Kurt Lewin’s
fundamental equation of human behavior began with a search of
“whys.” .In
this equation, Lewin states the B represents the individual
behavior, f means a function that has caused the behavior, P is the
person, and S is the situation. Lewin’s equation then suggests that
B is a function of something both inside the Person and outside the
person in the Situation. As stated in Paul Hersey, Kenneth
Blachared, and Dewey Johnson’s book Management of Organizational
Behavior, “something inside the person is motives or needs that
are reflected in individual attitudes-an individual’s tendency to
act.”
Patricia Fields (TNU 2006)
Hersey, Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson.
Management ofOrganizational Behavior. 8th
ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001.
The “Whys” of behavior
Psychologist
Field Theory
B=f(P and S)
B = Behavior
P = Person (Inside)
S = Situation (Outside)
Persons are influenced by Situations and Situations are influenced by
Persons
Type of Situational and Contingency Leadership where Appropriate Leader
Behavior is determined by the situation
Paul Hersey, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson, Management of
Organizational Behavior, Leading Human Resources, 8th Edition, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 2001
Field of organization behavior and group dynamics.
Experiential Learning. Learning is best facilitated when there is a
conflict between immediate concrete experience and detached analysis within
the individual.
In 1946, launches the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
His contributions in change theory, action research, and action learning
earn him the title of the "father of organization development."
The behavior of one person may influence that person's world and it
may also influence other people. Norman Maier
Maier
created the formula:
S
ß ŕ
O ŕ
B ŕ
A.
He theorizes that the situation interacts with the
organism (person), which creates goal-oriented behavior that results
in an activity. The activity resulting from Maier’s “cause and
effect” sequence may be either desirable or undesirable.
Effective advertising combined with proper timing creates a
desirable increase in new patient volume at my clinic.
Positive effort or action produces positive results.
Hersey,
Paul., Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Dale W. Barner (TNU 2005)
Norman Maier
Maier was an industrial
psychologist from the University of Michigan. He was able to take Lewin’s
equation and develop it further. He referred to his model as the “classic
sequence model.”
S = Situation or Stimulus
O = Person or Organism
B = Behavior
A = Accomplishment or Activity
As quoted in the text,
Management of Organizational Behavior, Maier states the following:
In order to explain behavior,
one must include a description of the S [situation] as well as of the O
[organism]. The interaction between them must precede the behavior that
results from the interaction. The product of this interaction in psychology
is called perception. [The resultant] behavior (B) causes changes, which
alter the relationship between the organism (O) and its world. The changes
produced by behavior are an accomplishment (A). This accomplishment may be
desirable or undesirable. In either case, it may alter the
stimulus-situation…. Thus, the behavior of one person may influence that
person’s world and it may also influence other people. (pg 23)
According to Maier, when an
individual is unable to meet his or her goals, there will be a resultant
behavior such as aggression, rationalization, or regression. A leader
should use the behavior symptoms to diagnose underlying problems, likely
related to frustration.
Wendi Hester
(TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Blanchard, and Johnson. “Management of Organizational Behavior”, 8th
ed.
Industrial Psychologist form the University of Michigan
Put together “Situation, Person, Behavior(s), and Activities”
Paraphrase,
"To explain behavior, include a description of the situation (S)
and organization (O).
S = the Situation or Stimulus
O = Person or Organization
Interaction of S and O precede the behavior (B) which results from the
interaction.
B = the Behavior(s)
The product is called perception.
The resultant behavior (B) causes changes which alters the relationship
between the organism (O) and its world.
The change produced by behavior is an accomplishment (A).
A = Activity or Accomplishment
The accomplishment may be desirable or undesirable or undesirable. (Good
or Bad)
In either case it may alter the stimulus situation.
Paul Hersey, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson, Management of
Organizational Behavior, Leading Human Resources, 8th Edition, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 2001.
Victor Vroom (Expectancy Theory)
Action is the first step in satisfying a
need, goal, or motive. Victor Vroom provided insight with his
expectancy theory of motivation (Effort
ŕ
Performance
ŕ
Reward). Individual perceptions influence the results or outcome of
this formula. When an individual perceives a need, he or she will
exert an effort or action to satisfy that need. Their “perceived
effort-performance probability” is the basis for their motive
strength.” Similarly, the motive for achieving the performance is
“perceived performance-reward probability.” The reward refers to
perceived values or rewards. The key to the Vroom expectancy theory
is whether the individual perceives a positive relationship between
effort, performance, and reward.
Dale W. Barner (TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Paul., Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
The research of Victor Vroom says in his "Expectancy Theory"
that motivation increases "if a person perceives a positive relationship
between effort and performance. If a manager recognizes that each person is
different and may need different motivational factors at different times in her
life, he or she will be able to manage successfully.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
Hersey,
Paul., Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Victor Vroom
is known for the Expectancy Theory. This theory bases its
motivational outcome upon the employee’s behavior, self-evaluation,
and what they believe are important values. Positive rewards for
good performance lead to motivating behavior, which continues this
cycle. In this theory three main components depend on one another:
effort, performance, and reward. The component’s relationship
dependency produces motivation. Which all depends on the
individual’s felt needs. Meeting the employee’s felt needs ensures
that the cycle will continue to produce desired results.
Janet Williams (TNU 2006)
Hersey,
Paul., Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Victor Vroom
Victor Vroom called his behavioral theory the Expectancy Theory. He
believed that “felt needs cause behavior, and this motivated
behavior in a work setting is increased if a person perceives a
positive relationship between effort and performance.” (Mgmt. of
Org. Behavior pg 33) He also suggested that a person’s motivated
behavior would increase if there were a perceived, valuable reward
given for his or her efforts. Further, he suggested that links
between effort and performance, good performance and rewards and
achievement of valued outcomes or rewards were important to
understanding behavior.
Wendi Hester (TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Paul., Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Formulated one of the most popular versions of expectancy theory.
Based on three concepts
(1) Valence – represents the value or importance that a particular
outcome has for a person. It reflects the strength of a person’s desire for
or attraction to the outcomes of a particular course of
action.
(2) Instrumentality - Reflects the person’s perception of the
relation between a “first level outcome” and a “second-level outcome”
Example: It might represent the extent to which a person feels that
performance will lead to a promotion.
(3) Expectancy - The extent to which he feels that his efforts will
lead to the first level outcome (performance).
Motivation = the sum of Valence x instrumentality x expectancy
Work -> expectancy (accomplishment) -> instrumentality -> valence
(outcome)
Motivation involves a 3 step process
(Step 1) Does the person fell the second level goal (promotion) is
important to him (high in valence).
(Step 2) Does he feel that the first level outcome (performance)
will provide the second level goal (promotion).
(Step 3) Does he feel exerting effort will result in an increase in
the first level goal (Performance).
Boone, Louis E. and Donald D. Bowen, The Great Writings in Management and
Organizational Behavior, 2nd edition, Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Maslow, Abraham
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs says that our motivation depends on which
stage of need we find ourselves in: physiological, safety/security,
social/affinity, esteem/recognition, or self-actualization. The needs are
independent of each other and one need does not have to be fully satisfied to be
motivated by another stronger level of need.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
Craig A. Stevens Gives an example of pizza and how he once use Maslow at a commercial/public reproduction provider during a workshop in Cincinnati Ohio. Once you're full you
don't want more.
1920’s through the 1950’s (Group called the Second Generation)
(The Great Writings in Management and Organizational Behavior, Page
89-106) was a clinical psychologist,
Published his paper outlining his new theory of motivation in 1943. More
than a theory of motivation, the paper represents a theory of human nature.
Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory of motivation assumes that man’s needs
can be visualized in a hierarchy, with each corresponding higher-level need
becoming a motivator as the next lower level need is filled. He says that
people are constantly in a motivational state, and as one need is satisfied,
another rises in its place.
Maslow believed that basic human needs are organized in a hierarchy.
Physiological needs rank lowest in the hierarchy, followed by safety and
security needs, Membership or social needs, esteem or ego needs, and
self-actualization needs.
Physiological needs include the survival needs such as food,
water, and shelter.
Security needs include the need for safety and to feel protected
from dangerous situations.
Membership needs include the need for love and the need to be part
of a social group.
Esteem needs include the need for self-esteem and public-esteem.
The need for self-actualization is the need to become all that one can
be.
Maslow felt that without lower level needs being met one is not usually
motivated to meet higher level needs.
Boone, Louis E. and Donald D. Bowen, The Great Writings in Management and
Organizational Behavior, 2nd edition, Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1987.
STUDENT PAPER ON MASLOW
In today's business world it is
obvious that a company must build and retain qualified employees. Most companies
are looking for ways to motivate their existing work force to expand their
horizons and build their skill sets. One way to build upon their existing
knowledge base is for the employee to return to school. We, Keith Scruggs with
ITWCIP Fasteners in Gallatin Tennessee, and Tim Word from the DuPont plant in
Old Hickory Tennessee are two examples of this.
Although we never met, we have
similar stories. We both are well established within our respective companies.
However, but we both felt the same way, as if something was missing. Seminars
and training sessions could not fill this hole. That is why we both returned to
school. Our example might help show companies another way to keep employees
while motivating them to return to academics.
Our situation relates well to
traditional findings on motivation. As an example, consider Abraham Maslow, a
famous motivational theorist who developed his very familiar model based on the
hierarchy of human needs. One could divide his set of human needs into two
groups: deficiency needs and growth needs. The lowest sets of needs, the
deficiency needs, Tell us that each lower need must be met before moving to the
next higher one. Furthermore, even if a lower level need is satisfied, whenever
a deficiency is re-detected, the individual will go back and work to remove the
deficiency. These first four deficiency levels needs are:
1. Physiological Needs: hunger, thirst, bodily
comforts, etc.
2. Safety/security Needs: out of danger
3. Belonginess and Love Needs: affiliate with
others, be accepted; and
4. Esteem Needs: to achieve, be competent, gain
approval and recognition.
According to Maslow, an
individual is ready to act upon the growth needs only after meeting all of the
deficiency needs. Maslow's initial concept included only one growth
need--self-actualization.
However, what most people do not
know is Maslow later differentiated the growth need of "self
actualization" with other growth needs. He added two lower-level
growth needs before self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one
higher growth need beyond self-actualization (Maslow, 1971). The new growth
needs are:
5. Cognitive Needs: to know, to understand, and
explore
6. Aesthetic Needs: symmetry, order, and
beauty
7. Self-actualization Needs: to find
self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and
8. Self-transcendence Needs: to connect to something
beyond the ego or to help others find self-fulfillment and realize their
potential. (Huitt, Paragraphs 1-3)
Given these changes the
traditional Maslow's hierarchy of human needs pyramid adds the levels as in the
figure below.
By using the new
understanding of the "Cognitive" needs of "To know, to
understand, and to explore," it is now easier for us to understand why we
felt driven to return to finish our degrees. There comes a time when the need to
learn and grow becomes a driving force. One cannot meet this need without going
into a higher plain that is sometimes associated with the "Self
Actualization." However, we now know that Maslow shows us, if a company
would help their employees fulfill the "Cognitive" need this may be an
effective means to motivate the employee to succeed within the company instead
of choosing to look elsewhere for that need fulfillment, possibly with another
company.
We feel that without even knowing
it the Cognitive Need of "To know, to understand, and to explore," was
a driving force leading us to graduate from Trevecca Nazarene University in
December 2004.
Bios.
Keith Scruggs (TNU 2004) is a Quality Lab
Technician at ITWCIP Fasteners in Gallatin Tennessee for the past fourteen
years. He has worked in the automotive industry in Quality and Research and
Development since 1980. He has traveled to over ten different countries
including mission work in Cuba. He has been married for twenty-five years to his
high school sweet heart and friend, Dawn. Keith and Dawn have a son, Aaron in
college at Western Kentucky University and a daughter A'ndrea, also in college
at Middle Tennessee State University. Keith will graduate with honors from
Trevecca Nazarene University in December of 2004.
Tim Word (TNU 2004) is currently employed
with the DuPont Corporation located in Old Hickory, Tennessee. During his
employment, Tim has received a variety of experiences. He has spent three years
as a chemical operator, two years as a control electrician, two years as a
Six-Sigma Blackbelt, and three years as a supervisor. Currently, Tim has dual
responsibilities as the HR representative and the production/maintenance
coordinator for the Crystar manufacturing facilities. Tim will also graduate
form Trevecca Nazarene University in December of 2004.
Special thanks to Prof. Craig Stevens for
all his help with this project.
Maslow, Abraham, & Lowery,
R. (Ed.). (1998). Toward a psychology of being (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley &
Sons.
Maslow, Abraham. (1971). The
farther reaches of human nature. New York: The Viking Press.
Clayton Alderfer
Alderfer created the ERG (Existence,
Relatedness, and Growth) theory of three core needs. Alderfer’s theory is
similar to Maslow’s except that an individual can experience more than one
need at a time. The following comparisons are made between Alderfer’s ERG
theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Existence is comparable to
physiological and safety needs. Relatedness need is comparable to
social/affiliation need. Growth is comparable to esteem and
self-actualizations needs. Regression to a previous level is permitted, if
necessary.
Hersey, Paul.,
Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of Organizational
Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 2001.
Dale
W. Barner (TNU 2005)
Clayton Alderfer revised and realigned a version of Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs. He called it the ERG theory. He suggested that existence,
relatedness, and growth were the three basic needs. Existence went with
physiological and safety needs. Relatedness is social needs. Growth is the
esteem and self-actualization needs. According to Maslow’s theory, one need
is the strongest, and a person cannot move onto the next need until that one
is satisfied. According to Alderfer’s theory, more than one need is strong
at a time, and a person can move to another need before satisfying one.
Managers must find and manage accordingly to the needs of their employees.
Hersey, Paul.,
Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of Organizational
Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 2001.
Jennifer Stockling (TNU
2006)
In 1969 wrote a revision of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, called the ERG
Theory. It appeared in Psychological Review in an article entitled
"An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Need."
ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth), and was created to align
Maslow's motivational theory more closely with empirical research.
ERG represent these three levels of needs:
Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence
requirements.
Relatedness refers to the desire we have for maintaining
interpersonal relationships.
Growth refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development
Very similar to Maslow and based on Maslow.
Different from Maslow.
ERG demonstrates that more than one need may be motivational at the same
time.
A lower motivation may not be substantially satisfied before one can
move onto higher motivators.
Accounts for differences in need preferences between
cultures.
The order of needs can be different for different people.
Flexibility allows for a wider range of observed behaviors.
Example, the "starving artist" may place growth needs above
existence ones.
Acknowledges that if a higher-order need is frustrated, an individual
may regress to increase the satisfaction of a lower-order need which
appears easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression
principle.
Using the ERG Theory
Managers must recognize that an employee has multiple needs to satisfy
simultaneously.
According to the ERG theory, focusing exclusively on one need at a time
will not effectively motivate.
The frustration-regression principle impacts workplace motivation. If
growth opportunities are not provided to employees, they may regress to
relatedness needs, and socialize more with co-workers. Or, the inability
of the environment or situation to satisfy a need for social interaction
might increase the desire for more money or better working conditions. If
the manager is able to recognize these conditions, steps can be taken to
satisfy the frustrated needs until the subordinate is able to pursue
growth again.
David C. McClelland
believed that people had an intense need to achieve.
“McClelland’s research led him to believe that the need for
achievement is a distinct human motive that can be distinguished
from other needs.” (Blanchard, Hersey, and Johnson 48) “The high
need for achievement surfaces only when people believe they can
influence the outcome.” (Blanchard, Hersey, and Johnson 48)
Achievement motivated people want personal accomplishment. They
are always thinking on how to improve. Managers must realize
that achievement is also a motivating factor.
Hersey, Paul, Kenneth
H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of Organizational
Behavior: Leading Human Resources. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 2001.
Jennifer
Stockling (TNU 2006)
McClelland identified two needs.
McClelland’s “need for affiliation” is comparable to Maslow’s
“social need.” His “need for achievement” is comparable to
Maslow’s “self-actualization” (Hersey 48). McClelland, with the
assistance of John Atkinson, performed research that demonstrated
a relationship between motivation and the probability of success.
His research revealed that the degree of motivation and effort
rises until the probability of success reaches fifty percent.
Motivation then begins to decrease although the probability of
success continues to increase (Hersey 32). Repetition can become
boring. While repetition benefits success, it depletes motivation.
I have noticed this trend in projects that I do at home and the
office. The motivation peaks during the planning and
implementation phases of a project. When expected results (Vroom
theory) are slower and/or less than anticipated, motivation
decreases. Eventually either interest is lost or procrastination
and burnout occurs. I believe the solution to this phenomenon
involves setting and achieving interim goals. Increasing the
degree of difficulty or challenge is another option for avoiding
McClelland’s “motivational bell curve.”
There are other theorists, such as
Elton Mayo whose research in the Hawthorne studies revealed
perceived benefits. Workers perceived changes in environment, both
good and bad, as management interest. Subsequent increase in
motivation caused increased production (Hersey 57). This research
helped develop today’s management systems.
Hersey,
Paul., Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Dale W. Barner (TNU 2005)
Just like people search for the meaning in their lives, they search for
meaning in their workplace. David McClellan has identified an additional need to
add to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, the need for achievement. According to
McClellan, "Achievement motivated people are more concerned with personal
achievement than with the rewards of success. They respond favorably to
information about their work. They are not interested in comments about their
personal characteristics, such as how cooperative or helpful they are… They
habitually spending time thinking about how to do things better." Although
they are usually high performers and receive promotions quickly, they do not
necessarily make the best managers, especially when their employees need a
higher level of social affiliation than they do.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
Today (Major Current Contributions) (The Great Writings in
Management and Organizational Behavior, Pages 384-394)
Chairman of the Board of Directors of McBer and Company and
Professor of Psychology at Harvard University around 1987.
Main themes Need for Achievement is a Human Motive.
You can recognize the Achievement Motivated person In each group
Individuals with a high need to achieve when given a task
will set the objective to moderately difficult but Achievable (overload
Principle)
Achievement motivated people do not leave outcomes to chance
everything is planned out Are more concerned with personal achievement
McClelland’s interests lie in the association between
achievement motivation and entrepreneurial activities.
His studies confirm the existence of a strong relationship
between achievement motivation and both economic and entrepreneurial
success.
In summary, most of the research supports the hypothesis
that need for achievement motivation contributes to economic and
entrepreneurial success.
McClelland believed that people can be divided into two
groups:
Achievers
Achiever is challenged by opportunity and is willing to work
hard to achieve something. They would choose experts over friends when given
a choice of selecting a working partner.
Psychologists determine an individual’s nAch score (Need
for Achievement) by the frequency with which the person mentions doing
things better.
Affiliators
Affiliators have a high need for affiliation with other (nAff).
They are not greatly challenged to achieve results and would
choose friends over experts when given a choice of selecting a working
partner.
Boone, Louis E. and Donald D. Bowen, The Great Writings in Management and
Organizational Behavior, 2nd edition, Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Elton Mayo
Craig A.
Stevens
Facilitates
On Mayo
In 1924, Elton Mayo observed workers at Western
Electric Company to see if they were more productive when working conditions
improved. The so-called Hawthorne Studies had a surprising outcome.
Workers with better lighting in their work areas had higher productivity.
However, workers in a control group whose conditions remained unchanged had
productivity increases too. The conclusion was that these workers became
more productive because the increased attention made them feel more valued.
Eileen
Tremblay (TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Hawthorne experiments.-- 1920’s through the 1950’s
Group that the book Great Writing In Management and Organizational
Behavior" by Louis E. Boone and Donald D. Bowen calls the Second
Generation.
He was a psychologist.
He demolished the accepted notions that workers were motivated only by
economic needs and that they responded to management’s incentive plans as
independent individuals operating according to economically rational
criteria.
Contradicted Taylor’s work and the basic assumptions, which permeated
management theory up to that time.
The Hawthorne studies produced ample date to show that social and group
membership concerns frequently took precedence in the motivation of the
workers.
Book In Search of Excellence Calls Mayo -- Closed System Social Actor Akin to Douglas
McGreagor, Chester
Barnard and Philip Selznick
“In 1924, efficiency experts at the
Hawthorne, Illinois, plant of the
Western Electric Company designed a
research program to study the
effects of illumination on
productivity. In the initial phases
of the study, efficiency experts
assumed that more light would result
in higher output. Two groups of
employees were selected: an
experimental, or test, group that
worked under normal illumination
conditions in the plant. As lighting
power was increased, the output of
the test group went up as
anticipated. Unexpectedly, however,
the output of the control group went
up also—without any increase in
light. When illumination was
decreased to the level of moonlight
with one test group, output
increased even further. The
illumination test ended in April
1927, when the researchers concluded
that something other than
illumination was affecting
productivity.” (Management of
Organizational Behavior p57)
The next phase of the experiments
involved a group of women that
assembled telephone relays. They
received scheduled rest periods,
company lunches, and shorter
workweeks. Next, the researchers
returned them back to the exact way
they had been at the beginning of
the experiment. Instead of a
negative impact, it had a positive
impact. Researches later concluded
that, “The answers were found not in
the production aspect of the
experiment (changes in plant and
physical working conditions) but in
the human aspects. Because of the
attention given them by
experimenters, the women felt that
they were an important part of the
company. They no longer viewed
themselves as isolated individuals,
working together only in the sense
that they were physically close to
each other. Instead, they had become
participating members of a
congenial, cohesive work group. The
relationships that developed
elicited feelings of affiliation,
competence, and achievement.” (MOB
p58)
Michael Shaffield (TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 200
The importance of Elton Mayo
and the Hawthorne studies is evident in
today’s workforce. Mayo and his
experiments conducted at the Hawthorne,
Illinois plant of Western Electric
Company initiated the human relations
management style. The Hawthorne
experiments used changes in lighting
within the plant to examine the
lightings influence on worker
productivity. The scientists determined
that the lighting had no effect on
productivity. The experimenters
surmised that the increase in
productivity was due to the attention
given to the employees during the
experiment. The Hawthorne studies
proved the need for management to
understand the human not only the
worker. Prior to the studies, Mayo felt
the workers productivity was poor due to
the employee’s feelings of
unimportance. Mayo felt the workers
felt “unimportant, confused, and
unattached” (Hersey and Blanchard 59).
Mayo’s Hawthorne studies showed a need
for a human focus in management styles.
This movement towards employees feeling
important and humane treatment still
exists in today’s work environment. The
Hawthorne studies and experiments
demonstrate the start of the human
relations movement.
Anne
M. Stills (TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Craig A. Stevens
explains Mayo
and gives
examples Using this matrix
and examples of gangs and star
performing teams.
Boone, Louis E. and Donald D. Bowen, The Great Writings in Management and
Organizational Behavior, 2nd edition, Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Douglas McGregor
In today's work environment, Managers no longer look
to Douglas McGregor's research on Theory X or Theory Y management for all of
the answers to management. Although some parts of the theories are still
used, managers of today know that management style is more complex than the
simple human nature assumptions attributed to the workers in McGregor's
theory.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
The book In Search of Excellence calls McGregor a Closed System Social Actor Akin to Mayo, Chester Barnard and
Philip Selznick
Distinguished between two sets of management assumptions, which he called
Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X tends to be a self-fulfilling prophecy. If management treats
workings as if they have theory X characteristics, they eventually begin to
exhibit those characteristics.
This approach is no longer adequate, because it satisfies only people’s
lower level needs (Maslow). These are fairly well satisfied in modern
societies…managers should concentrate on making employee’s jobs more
challenging (through job enlargement) and through participation and
management by objectives.
Craig A. Stevens
Talking about
Theory X and Y
Argyris, Chris
In the 1980's, Chris Argyris developed his theory of
Pattern A and Pattern B. Similar to McGregor's Theories X and Y, Pattern
A people and groups tend toward Theory X and are more rigid in their
supervision and management styles. Pattern B people and groups resemble
Theory Y traits and are more flexible and open to new ideas. Argyris
believed people could move between X/Y and A/B, thus a Theory X manager who
believed most workers were lazy might also be open and supportive.
Chris Argyris also
developed the Theory of Immaturity-Maturity. Individuals progress at
different rates from the total immaturity of early childhood (being passive,
dependent, shallow, limited activity) to maturity (active, independent,
deeper thoughts, more varied interests). Most organizations have
bureaucratic or pyramidal values that foster immaturity in workers and "in
many cases, when people join the workforce, they are kept from maturing by
the management practices utilized in their organizations" (Hersey 65).
Argyris's
Immaturity-Maturity Theory is the most intriguing of these motivational
theories. Unfortunately, most organizations still adopt the bureaucratic or
pyramidal style of leadership. This authoritarian style often resembles a
family with a dominating parent (management) exercising almost total control
over the children (employees). It is no wonder in these environments that
trust and creativity are rare. There are exceptions however. The leadership
of the author's employer, the YWCA of Nashville, values employees and treats
them with respect. As a result, YWCA staff members are more independent and
have room to grow.
It is easy to apply
this theory to many circumstances outside the workplace. Families in which
parents are either over-protective or, on the other extreme, do not protect
their children at all may have offspring who are immature and have trouble
forming long-term relationships. Governments with strong central authority
where people have little personal freedom usually have citizens who are
dependent financially and psychologically. Schools where rigid rules are
more important than the free flow of ideas will probably graduate students
with narrow views and a lack of creativity. It is obvious that human beings
flourish only when they are in an environment with trust, support and
independence.
Eileen
Tremblay (TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Management Reacts to The Employees
Chris Argyris, “The Individual and Organization: Some
Problems of Mutual Adjustment” The Great Writings In Management and
Organizational Behavior, 2nd Edition, pg........ 139,Boone Bowen, McGraw Hill,
1987
Rensis Likert
George Casper Homans
George
Homans developed the idea of
Informal Work Groups in the 1950's. He believed social systems have
three parts: Activities (things people do), interactions (how people behave
toward each other in their activities), and sentiments (perspectives and
feelings of the people in a group). Each area needs to be present in order
to maximize growth and productivity.
Eileen
Tremblay (TNU 2005)
Hersey,
Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.
George Homan's suggests informal work groups as a solution to
motivation, establishing peer pressure and group norms to get the job done.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
Developed a model of social systems.
Asked the question, Where do the strong informal work groups
get their power?
Three Elements
Activities – the tasks that people perform
Interactions – the behaviors that occur between people
in performing the tasks
Sentiments – the attitudes that develop between
individuals and within groups
Although these concepts are separate, they are closely
related.
The elements are mutually dependent.
A change in any one of these three elements will produce
some change in the other two.
In an organization positive reactions to these elements are
essential for survival.
As a group becomes more alike, they develop norms and
expectations on how the members will act.
Negative (kidding, harsh criticism, etc.) or (Could be
Positive)
Group Members May React in Several Ways (Fit in, Move away
from the group, Leave the company)
Paul Hersey, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson, Management of
Organizational Behavior, Leading Human Resources, 8th Edition, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 2001.
Craig A. Stevens
Herzberg, Frederick
The research completed by Frederick Herzberg places an
increased level of responsibility with human resources to control what he calls,
"hygiene factors." Human resources can prevent dissatisfaction in the
workplace by controlling the workers environment, which allows management to
motivate with the job itself. When talking about job focus instead of hygiene
factors, Herzberg refers to "feelings of achievement, professional growth,
and recognition that one can experience."
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
In an article titled, "One More Time: How Do You
Motivate Employees?" Frederick Herzberg says that there are many different
ways to motivate employees, but most of them that are currently in use only
serve to cause movement, not motivation. He lists the different ways that
employers have tried to motivate in the past with little success and reminds us
again of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Herzberg says, "Motivators were the
primary cause of satisfaction and hygiene factors were the primary cause of
unhappiness on the job." Herzberg warns against job loading, which just
increases the production numbers expected from an employee and "enlarges
the meaninglessness of the job." Job enrichment is what works to motivate
employees. In a control group, the job-enriched group liked their jobs better,
had lower absenteeism and a higher rate of promotion. Herzberg says that a
company cannot enrich all jobs, but those that can, should be.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Frederick Herzberg developed a
theory regarding the growing importance of
the needs of self-actualization and esteem.
The Motivation-Hygiene theory concludes,
“people have two different categories of
needs, hygiene factors and motivators, that
are essentially independent of each other
and affect behavior in different ways”
(67). Hygiene is defined as the environment
and its primary reason for being is to
prevent job discontent. The second grouping
is called motivators, as they seem to
motivate the individual to better
performance. Another way to view this
theory is in comparison to Alderfer’s ERG
theory. Herzberg’s hygiene factors relate
to Alderfer’s needs of relatedness and
existence while motivators relates to the
growth needs. Hygiene factors, when
fulfilled, tend to “eliminate
dissatisfaction and work restriction, but
they do little to motivate an individual to
superior performance or increased capacity”
(69). Motivators, when enhanced, allow for
growth and advancement. How this translates
to the workforce today is that hygiene
factors affect the employee’s compliance,
whereas, motivators affect an employee’s
skills (69).
Another factor of Herzberg’s
Motivation-Hygiene theory is job
enrichment. “Job enrichment means the
deliberate upgrading of responsibility,
scope, and challenge in work” (71). An
example would be to gather a group of
employees from around a manufacturing plant
act in a committee to decide the
requirements for community donations.
Amanda K. Beaty (TNU 2006)
Hersey,
Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of
Organizational Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Should stress intrinsic “motivators” (achievement, etc)
rather than extrinsic “hygienes” (money, etc) to motivate employees
(Motivator – Hygiene Theory).
Hygiene Factors
Hygiene factors only motivate when missing, once
obtained becomes non-factor
Hygiene factors are extrinsic and can cause dissatisfaction
when they are not met, but cannot satisfy or motivate if they are
present.
Examples of hygiene factors include the following: Working
conditions Company policy and administration Relationship with supervisors
Relationship with peers Pay
Motivators
Motivators increase through job enrichment.
Motivator factors are intrinsic and lead to job satisfaction
and motivation.
Examples of motivator factors include the following:
Recognition Achievement Possibility of growth Advancement, new challenges
Responsibility Job itself
Warren Bennis
The four common traits found by Warren Bennis in his
five-year study of ninety effective leaders are management of attention,
management of meaning, management of trust, and management of self.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
Susan Heathfield
In an article by Susan Heathfield titled, "Set Them
Free: Two Musts for Motivation!" Heathfield suggests that the human
resources department should review company policies and take steps to provide
increased motivation. Heathfield says that hundreds of rules and policies prove
to employees that companies expect them to misbehave when there are rules for
every infraction. The steps to motivate employees are:
Make only the minimum number of rules and policies to
protect your workplace.
Publish the rules and policies to educate all
employees.
Involve many employees in the writing of organizational
values and codes of conduct.
Develop guidelines for supervisors and educate them about
the fair and consistent application of the few rules and policies.
Once the new policies are in place, job focused activities
can increase motivation through employee involvement. Expressed expectations,
feedback, and asking the employees for suggestions are ways to empower employees
and focus on the job at hand. The suggestions mentioned in Heathfield's article
coincide with Herzberg's theory and serve to remove the hygiene factors that
might cause employee dissatisfaction. The reduction in the number of policies,
allows for focus on the job itself.
Nancy Sibole (TNU 04)
Barbara A. Glanz
Herzberg speaks of the needs that people have related to
growth that are essential to job satisfaction. He classifies achievement,
recognition for achievement, responsibility, and growth and advancement as
motivator factors, which he ties into a job enrichment process for improving
morale and motivation workers. Barbara A. Glanz who has written many articles on
morale in the workplace has a similar approach. Glanz put a lot of emphasis on
building trust in the workplace. That is the workers must trust management to do
right by them. Glanz explains that, "trust will only be rebuilt if feelings
of emotions are taken into consideration, and ongoing relationships are created
(2)." Glanz reveals findings from studies conducted in 1946, 1981 and 1995
in which employees listed the top ten things that motivate them. The top three
have remained the same in all of the surveys. They are:
Interesting work
Full appreciation for the work they've done and
A feeling of being "in" on things Glanz
concludes that what motivates people are based on the human level and not on
a monetary or reward incentive level.
She ends her article with a quote from Hyler Bracy who in his
book Managing from the Heart says that all employees are crying out for the
behaviors that make up the acronym "HEART:"
Hear and understand me.
Even if you disagree with me, please don't make me
wrong,
Acknowledge the greatness within me.
Remember to look for my loving intentions.
Tell me the truth with compassion.
All of these requests fall on the human level and lead to
caring, sharing relationships and the rebuilding of trust (Glanz 9).
Pam Gregory (TNU 04) based on Glanz, Barbara A. Rebuilding Trust
in Turbulent Times. McGraw-Hill, 1996. 3 May 2004 (link http://barbaraglanz.com).
COMPARISONS
Donna K. Steinkamp, TNU 2005
Expectancy
Theory
Victor Vroom
Based on what the employee believes about his behavior and what he perceives as important or of value.
·Person’s effort will result in performance
·Person’s effort will be rewarded
·Perceived value an individual places on outcome
·Must be present before a high level of motivation can occur
Needs
Theories
Maslow – People are motivated by needs they want to satisfy
·Physiological
·Safety
·Social
·Esteem
·Self-fulfillment
McClelland – Individual and environment form three basic motives
·Need for achievement
·Need for power
·Need for affiliation
Every individual has each of these motives in varying degrees, but one motive will be dominant
Motivation-Hygiene
Fredrick Herzberg-Motivators-Aspects of people’s jobs that made them feel good or satisfied were factors intrinsic to the job.
·Achievement
·Recognition
·Work itself
·Responsibility, advancement & personal growth
Coined the phrase job enrichment as a motivator. Employment empowerment is a compelling motivator by itself.
Hygiene Factors
·Comprise of work environment rather than work itself
·Company policies, relations, administration
·Only motivate when missing
·Are extrinsic and cause dissatisfaction when they are not met
Craig’s Opinion
·Everything fits together in one system or is weeded out
